Inside a Sign Language: How Visual Grammars Work

1. From Sound to Sight: What Is a Visual–Spatial Modality?

In earlier modules, you saw that sign languages are real, full languages, not simplified versions of spoken languages. Now we zoom in on how they work.

Spoken languages use the audio-vocal modality:

• lungs, vocal folds, tongue, lips (to produce sound)
• ears (to receive sound)

Sign languages use the visual–spatial modality:

• hands and arms
• face and head
• upper body and torso
• 3D space in front of the signer (often called signing space)
• eyes (to see the language)

Because sign languages are visual–spatial, their grammars make heavy use of:

• location in space
• movement through space
• simultaneity (several things happening at once, like hands + eyebrows)

> Key idea: Sign languages are not just spoken languages on the hands. Their grammars are shaped by vision and space, not sound.

2. The Building Blocks of Signs: Basic Sign Phonology

Just like spoken languages have phonology (how sounds are organized), sign languages have sign phonology (how visual units are organized).

Linguists usually talk about five major parameters of a sign:

1. Handshape – which fingers are extended, bent, closed, etc.
2. Location – where the sign is made (e.g., near the head, chest, neutral space in front of the body).
3. Movement – how the hands move (straight, circular, repeated, fast/slow).
4. Orientation – which way the palm and fingers face.
5. Non-manual signals (NMS) – facial expressions, head and body movements, eye gaze, mouth movements.

Change just one parameter and you can get a different sign, similar to how changing one sound can change a spoken word.

> We’ll use American Sign Language (ASL) for many examples, but the same types of parameters exist in other sign languages (like BSL, Libras, LSF, PJM, DGS, etc.).

3. Micro-Lab: Spot the Parameters in a Single Sign

Let’s analyze one ASL sign: MOTHER.

Visual description of ASL MOTHER:

• Handshape: Open hand, all fingers spread, thumb extended (like a “5-hand”).
• Location: Thumb touches the chin.
• Movement: Usually a small tap or light contact, no big movement.
• Orientation: Palm facing to the side or slightly forward.
• Non-manuals: Neutral facial expression (unless changed by context).

Now compare MOTHER with ASL FATHER:

• Handshape: Same (5-hand).
• Orientation: Same.
• Movement: Same small tap.
• Location: Thumb touches the forehead, not the chin.

Only location changes, but the meaning changes from MOTHER to FATHER.

> This shows that location is a contrastive parameter, just like changing /m/ to /f/ in English changes mother to father.

4. Try It: Parameter Swap Thought Exercise

Imagine three (simplified) ASL signs. You do not need to know ASL to do this; just use the descriptions.

1. Sign A

• Handshape: 1-hand (index finger extended, others closed)
• Location: In front of the chest
• Movement: Small side-to-side motion
• Orientation: Palm facing down
• Non-manuals: Neutral face

1. Sign B

• Same as Sign A, except the palm faces up instead of down.

1. Sign C

• Same as Sign A, except the movement is a small up-and-down motion.

Your task (think or write your answers):

1. Which parameter changes between A and B?
2. Which parameter changes between A and C?
3. Why do linguists treat these as different signs, even though the change looks small?

> Hint: Relate your answer to how changing just one sound can turn bit into bet in English.

You can quickly jot down answers before moving on; you’ll see similar reasoning in the quiz later.

5. Non-Manuals: Face and Body as Grammar, Not Decoration

In sign languages, the face and body are part of the grammar, not just emotion.

Common non-manual signals (NMS) and what they can mean:

• Eyebrows raised
• Often marks yes/no questions in many sign languages (e.g., ASL, BSL).
• Eyebrows lowered, slight body lean forward
• Often marks wh-questions (who, what, where, why, how).
• Head nods/shakes
• Can mark affirmation/negation or emphasize a point.
• Mouth movements
• Can show adverbs (e.g., CHA mouth for something very large in ASL) or match spoken-language mouthings in some communities.
• Body shift/lean
• Can mark role shift (acting as another person) or separate clauses.

Example in ASL:

• The manual part of the sign might be YOU GO.
• Add raised eyebrows and a specific head tilt across the whole sentence and it becomes:

→ “Are you going?”

> Without the right non-manuals, a sentence can sound as incomplete or strange as an English sentence missing its question intonation or word order.

6. Word Order and Space: How Sentences Are Built

Sign languages have grammars and word orders that are not simply copies of surrounding spoken languages.

Using ASL as an example:

• A common basic order is often described as SVO (Subject–Verb–Object), similar to English.
• Example:
• ASL gloss: `GIRL EAT APPLE`
• Rough English: The girl eats an apple.

But ASL also makes heavy use of:

1. Topic–comment structures

• Topic first, then comment about it.
• ASL gloss: `BOOK, BOY READ`
• Rough English: As for the book, the boy is reading it.
• Non-manuals: Slight head tilt and raised eyebrows over BOOK to mark it as the topic.

1. Space as grammar

• You can set up locations in space for people or things, then point or move verbs between those locations.
• Example in ASL:
• Point to your right: `IX-right` (index pointing) = that person over there
• Point to your left: `IX-left` = another person
• Move the sign GIVE from right to left: `GIVE(right→left)` = That person gives to the other person.

> This use of space to show who does what to whom is a central part of many sign-language grammars and doesn’t have a simple spoken-language equivalent.

7. Signed vs. Spoken Structure: A Quick Comparison

Let’s compare a simple idea in English and ASL. We’ll use glosses (approximate written labels for signs). Remember: glosses are not the language itself.

Meaning: “Yesterday, I gave my friend a book.”

English (spoken):

> Yesterday, I gave my friend a book.

• Uses word order and verb forms (gave, not give) to show tense and roles.

Possible ASL version (simplified gloss):

```text

YESTERDAY IX-1 GIVE-TO-3 BOOK

```

Where:

• `YESTERDAY` – time sign, often placed at the start.
• `IX-1` – index pointing to self (I/me).
• `3` – a location in space set up to represent friend.
• `GIVE-TO-3` – the sign GIVE moves from the signer’s body toward location `3`.
• Non-manuals: neutral or context-appropriate facial expression.

Key differences:

• Tense is often marked with a time sign (like YESTERDAY) instead of changing the verb form.
• Who gave what to whom is partly shown by movement in space (the path of GIVE).
• Word order and space work together with non-manuals to create grammar.

> Many sign languages around the world show similar patterns: heavy use of space, topic–comment structures, and non-manuals, even though their exact word orders and signs differ.

8. Build-a-Sentence: Visual Grammar Design Challenge

You’re going to design a mini signed sentence for an imaginary sign language. You won’t draw it; you’ll specify the parameters.

Target meaning: “The cat sees the dog.”

Rules for your imaginary sign language:

• It uses SVO order.
• It uses space to track who is who.

Step 1 – Set up people/animals in space

1. Choose a point on your right for CAT.
2. Choose a point on your left for DOG.

Write something like:

```text

Right side = CAT

Left side = DOG

```

Step 2 – Decide the sign SEE

Describe SEE in your system:

• Handshape: ?
• Movement: from which location to which?
• Orientation: palm facing where?

Example (you can invent your own):

```text

SEE: 1-handshape, moves from CAT-location toward DOG-location, palm facing forward.

```

Step 3 – Put it together

Write a gloss-like line for your sentence. For example:

```text

CAT(right) DOG(left) SEE(right→left)

```

Reflect:

1. How did you use space to show who sees whom?
2. What would you change if you wanted “The dog sees the cat”?

> This mirrors how many real sign languages use directional verbs and space to encode grammatical roles.

9. Quick Check: Parameters and Grammar

Answer this question to check your understanding of sign parameters and visual grammar.

10. Review Terms: Visual Grammars

Flip these cards (mentally or with a partner) to review key concepts from this module.