SkarpChapter 5 of 8
Turning Points and War’s End: 1917–1918
Mutinies, revolutions and fresh American troops turned the tide in a war that many thought would never end. Trace the crucial turning points that broke the stalemate and led exhausted leaders to finally seek an armistice.
From Stalemate to Crisis: The War by 1917
A War Stuck in Place
By 1917, World War I had lasted over two and a half years. Millions were dead, but the Western Front had barely moved. Attacks were extremely costly because of machine guns, poison gas, and heavy artillery.
Exhaustion Everywhere
Both soldiers and civilians were exhausted. Soldiers faced endless mud and danger. Civilians dealt with hunger, inflation, and constant bad news from the front. Governments worried about unrest at home.
Central Powers Under Pressure
The Central Powers held large areas of territory, but they were squeezed by the British naval blockade. Shortages of food and raw materials hit Germany and its allies more each month.
The Big Question
In 1917–1918, a chain of events finally broke the stalemate: revolutions, mutinies, new allies, and desperate offensives. Keep asking: what changed now that made ending the war possible?
The Russian Revolutions and Russia Leaving the War
Russia Under Strain
Russia suffered huge losses, weak industry, and poor supply. Soldiers often lacked basic equipment. Civilians faced bread lines and bad news from the front, creating intense pressure on the regime.
February Revolution 1917
In March 1917 (February in the old Russian calendar), protests in Petrograd over bread turned into revolution. Soldiers joined the crowds. Tsar Nicholas II abdicated, and a Provisional Government took power.
Staying in the War
The Provisional Government chose to keep fighting. A new offensive in summer 1917 failed. Desertions grew, discipline collapsed, and workers and soldiers formed soviets that challenged the government.
October Revolution 1917
In November 1917 (October in the old calendar), the Bolsheviks, led by Lenin, overthrew the Provisional Government. They promised peace, land, and bread and called for an immediate end to the war.
Brest-Litovsk 1918
In March 1918, Soviet Russia signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with the Central Powers. Russia left the war but lost huge territories in Eastern Europe and the Baltic region.
Why It Mattered
Russia’s exit let Germany shift troops west for a final push. It also showed how war-weariness could lead to revolution, frightening leaders everywhere and adding pressure to end the conflict.
The United States Enters the War
US Neutrality Fades
The US stayed neutral in 1914 but traded heavily with Britain and France. Reports of German actions in Belgium and France, plus economic ties, slowly pushed American opinion toward the Allies.
Submarines and the Lusitania
In 1915, a German U-boat sank the Lusitania, killing 128 Americans. Anger grew. Germany limited submarine attacks for a time, but in early 1917 it resumed unrestricted submarine warfare.
The Zimmermann Telegram
In January 1917, Germany secretly urged Mexico to attack the US in return for lost territories. Britain intercepted the Zimmermann Telegram and shared it. When published, it shocked Americans.
US Declares War
On April 6, 1917, the United States declared war on Germany. The American Expeditionary Forces, led by General Pershing, began preparing to fight in Europe.
Why the US Mattered
US entry brought vast economic power and, soon, large numbers of fresh troops. Germany realized it had limited time to win before American strength tipped the balance decisively.
Cause-and-Effect: Russia Out, US In
Use this short exercise to connect how Russia leaving the war and the US entering it changed Germany’s situation.
Task 1: Quick matching (mentally or on paper)
Match each event to its effect on Germany’s strategy:
- Russia signs the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (March 1918).
- The United States declares war (April 1917) and begins sending troops.
Possible effects:
A. Germany can shift divisions from the Eastern Front to the Western Front for a major offensive.
B. Germany feels time pressure, knowing that fresh enemy troops and supplies will keep increasing.
Try to match them before looking at the answer.
Answer key:
1 → A
2 → B
Task 2: One-sentence explanation
In one sentence, explain why these two events together made Germany’s position both stronger and weaker at the same time.
Example frame to help you:
```text
Russia’s exit strengthened Germany because , but US entry weakened Germany because .
```
Fill in the blanks in your own words. This will help you see how military and political events combined to shape the final phase of the war.
Mutinies, Strikes, and War-Weariness
French Mutinies 1917
After the failed Nivelle Offensive, many French soldiers refused to attack again. They stayed in the trenches but would only defend. This forced a change in commanders and strategy.
Pétain’s Response
General Pétain improved food, leave, and living conditions and avoided pointless assaults. Some mutineers were punished, but the main goal was to restore confidence and stability.
Strikes and Unrest
Across Europe, workers went on strike over food shortages and harsh conditions. Germany and Austria-Hungary were hit especially hard, but Britain and France also saw protests.
War-Weariness
People everywhere were tired of mass casualties and propaganda. Many wanted peace without total victory. Governments feared mutiny or revolution if the war dragged on.
Impact on Decisions
Social strain limited what generals could do. Leaders knew that even if their armies were not yet beaten, morale and stability at home were fragile, pushing them toward an armistice in 1918.
Germany’s 1918 Offensives: The Last Gamble
Germany’s Final Gamble
In 1918, Germany launched huge offensives on the Western Front, starting with Operation Michael. Stormtrooper tactics and short, intense bombardments broke through Allied lines.
Early Gains
German forces advanced further than at any time since 1914, threatening key points like Amiens and even Paris. The static trench lines suddenly became a moving front again.
Hidden Weaknesses
Rapid advances overstretched German supplies. Elite troops suffered heavy losses, and Germany lacked reserves to replace them. Each success actually weakened the army’s long-term strength.
Allied Unity and US Troops
Allied command was unified under General Foch. At the same time, growing numbers of American soldiers arrived and fought in major battles, lifting Allied morale and pressure on Germany.
Amiens and After
At the Battle of Amiens in August 1918, German morale collapsed. Ludendorff called August 8 the black day of the German Army. From then, the Allies pushed Germany back step by step.
Why It Forced Peace
By late 1918, Germany’s army was exhausted, its offensives had failed, and its allies were weakening. Though German soil was not yet invaded, leaders saw defeat coming and turned to an armistice.
Quick Check: Why Did Germany’s 1918 Offensives Fail?
Answer this question to test your understanding of Germany’s last major offensives.
Which combination best explains why Germany’s 1918 spring offensives failed to win the war?
- They achieved no territorial gains at all, and the US never sent troops in time.
- They gained ground but exhausted Germany’s best troops and lacked supplies and reserves, while Allied forces (including Americans) grew stronger.
- They were stopped immediately by Russian reinforcements on the Western Front.
Show Answer
Answer: B) They gained ground but exhausted Germany’s best troops and lacked supplies and reserves, while Allied forces (including Americans) grew stronger.
Germany’s spring offensives made significant gains but at a huge cost. Elite troops were lost, supply lines were overstretched, and there were no fresh reserves. At the same time, Allied coordination improved and American forces kept arriving, so the balance of power shifted against Germany.
Collapse of the Central Powers and the Armistice
Allies of Germany Collapse
In late 1918, Bulgaria, the Ottoman Empire, and Austria-Hungary all signed armistices after defeats and internal crises. Austria-Hungary quickly broke apart into separate states.
Germany Under Strain
The British blockade caused severe shortages. German soldiers were exhausted and civilians faced hunger. Confidence in victory disappeared as the army retreated.
The Kiel Mutiny
In late October 1918, German sailors in Kiel refused to sail on a hopeless mission. Their mutiny spread, and workers’ and soldiers’ councils formed across Germany, demanding peace.
Political Collapse
Fearing revolution, German leaders accepted that the war was lost. Kaiser Wilhelm II abdicated and fled. A new civilian government asked the Allies for an armistice.
Armistice, 11 November 1918
Fighting ended at 11 a.m. on November 11, 1918. Germany agreed to withdraw from occupied lands and hand over weapons, while the blockade stayed until a final peace treaty.
Why Germany Gave In
Germany’s army was worn out, its allies were gone, and its people were near revolt. Leaders saw that continuing the war might bring revolution, so they accepted the armistice.
Key Terms Review: 1917–1918 Turning Points
Use these flashcards to review the main concepts and terms from this module.
- Russian Revolution (1917)
- A pair of revolutions (February and October, by the old calendar) that overthrew the Tsar, brought the Bolsheviks to power, and led to Russia leaving World War I.
- Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (March 1918)
- Peace treaty between Soviet Russia and the Central Powers. Russia left the war but lost large territories in Eastern Europe and the Baltic region.
- Unrestricted submarine warfare
- German policy of using submarines to sink ships (including neutral ones) without warning in certain zones, a key factor pushing the US toward war.
- American Expeditionary Forces (AEF)
- The US army sent to Europe in World War I, commanded by General John J. Pershing, which fought mainly in 1918.
- Mutiny
- A collective refusal by soldiers or sailors to obey orders. In 1917–1918, mutinies signaled deep war-weariness and forced governments to change course.
- Operation Michael
- The main German spring offensive launched in March 1918 on the Western Front, which made major gains but exhausted Germany’s best troops.
- Armistice (November 11, 1918)
- The agreement that ended fighting between Germany and the Allies at 11 a.m. on November 11, 1918. It was a ceasefire, not yet a full peace treaty.
- War of attrition
- A strategy focused on wearing down the enemy’s manpower and resources rather than achieving quick, decisive victories.
Putting It Together: Why Did the War End in 1918?
Now connect the military and social factors that forced Germany and its allies to accept an armistice.
Task 1: Fill the table (mentally or on paper)
Create a simple two-column table like this:
```text
Factor type | Example from 1917–1918
-------------------|------------------------
Military factor |
Social/political |
```
Add at least two examples in each column. For instance:
- Military factors might include failed German offensives or US troops arriving.
- Social/political factors might include mutinies, strikes, or revolutions.
Task 2: One-paragraph explanation
Write (or say aloud) a short paragraph answering this question:
```text
Why were Germany and its allies forced to accept an armistice in November 1918?
```
Use this frame if it helps:
```text
Germany and its allies accepted an armistice in November 1918 because (military reasons) and (social/political reasons). Together, these meant that .
```
If you can clearly explain how both battlefield events and home-front pressures combined, you have met the main learning objectives for this module.
Key Terms
- Mutiny
- A collective refusal by soldiers or sailors to obey orders from their commanders, often signaling deep dissatisfaction and breakdown of discipline.
- Armistice
- An agreement to stop fighting, usually as a step toward a full peace treaty. In World War I, the key armistice was on November 11, 1918 between Germany and the Allies.
- Western Front
- The main theatre of war in Western Europe during World War I, stretching roughly from the North Sea to Switzerland, where trench warfare dominated.
- Central Powers
- The alliance of Germany, Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire, and Bulgaria during World War I.
- War of attrition
- A type of warfare where each side tries to wear down the other by causing continuous losses in men and material, rather than seeking quick, decisive battles.
- Operation Michael
- The main German offensive launched in March 1918 on the Western Front, part of the larger spring offensives aimed at defeating the Allies before US power fully arrived.
- Russian Revolution
- The revolutionary events in Russia in 1917 that overthrew the Tsar, brought the Bolsheviks to power, and eventually led Russia to withdraw from World War I.
- Treaty of Brest-Litovsk
- A peace treaty signed in March 1918 between Soviet Russia and the Central Powers, ending Russia’s participation in World War I at the cost of major territorial losses.
- Unrestricted submarine warfare
- A naval strategy in which submarines attack merchant and passenger ships without warning in designated war zones; used by Germany and a key factor in bringing the US into the war.
- American Expeditionary Forces (AEF)
- The official name for the United States armed forces sent to fight in Europe in World War I, commanded by General John J. Pershing.