SkarpChapter 5 of 8
The War Turns, 1917–1918
Revolution removed Russia from the conflict while the United States brought new resources to the Allied side. Germany’s final offensives, Allied counterattacks, domestic unrest, and collapsing partners brought the fighting to a dramatic end.
1. Map the Turning Point
A War of Attrition
In early 1917, neither coalition had achieved a decisive breakthrough. Victory depended increasingly on industrial output, food supplies, manpower, transport, morale, and the ability to keep allies fighting.
Two Strategic Shifts
Russia's withdrawal gave Germany a temporary military opportunity. United States entry gave the Allies expanding credit, supplies, shipping, and fresh manpower. These developments pulled the war in opposite directions.
Use This Test
When judging a turning point, ask: Did it improve a side's ability to fight over time? A battlefield gain mattered only if it could be supplied, reinforced, and converted into a durable political result.
2. Russia: Revolution Ends the Eastern Front
Why Russia Broke Down
Russia faced mass casualties, unreliable transport, inflation, food shortages, and declining confidence in the monarchy. Soldiers and civilians increasingly believed that the war demanded sacrifices without a credible path to victory.
February Revolution
In the February Revolution of 1917, protests in Petrograd widened into mutiny. Nicholas II abdicated. The new Provisional Government replaced the tsar, but made the costly decision to keep Russia in the war.
October Revolution
The Bolsheviks seized power in the October Revolution. They argued that ending the war was essential to securing their revolution. Their decision opened negotiations with Germany and its allies.
3. Brest-Litovsk: A Gain That Created a Gamble
The Treaty
The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, signed on March 3, 1918, ended Russia's participation in the war. Soviet Russia accepted severe territorial losses in exchange for peace with Germany and the other Central Powers.
Germany's Opportunity
The end of the Eastern Front allowed Germany to transfer experienced units west. German leaders hoped to defeat Britain and France before the growing American Expeditionary Forces could decisively affect the fighting.
Why It Was a Gamble
Transferred troops did not solve Germany's deeper problems: shortages, exhausted soldiers, weak allies, and blockade pressure. Holding eastern territories also consumed resources. The strategic advantage had an expiration date.
4. Why the United States Entered
Why War Was Declared
Germany resumed unrestricted submarine warfare in 1917, risking attacks on neutral and American shipping. The Zimmermann Telegram reinforced the view that Germany threatened US security. Congress declared war on April 6, 1917.
More Than Soldiers
The United States contributed loans, food, industrial production, ships, and naval support. These resources helped the Allies sustain total war while countering the submarine campaign through improved convoy protection.
The Long-Term Effect
American troops arrived gradually, but their numbers grew sharply in 1918. Germany now faced a strategic deadline: it had to seek victory before Allied manpower and material superiority became overwhelming.
5. Strategic Deadline Exercise
Decide: Why Attack in 1918?
You are advising Germany in March 1918. Russia has left the war, and some divisions can move west. But the United States is sending more troops and supplies each month.
Complete this chain of reasoning:
- Russia's withdrawal gives Germany a temporary advantage because .
- US entry makes delay dangerous because .
- Therefore, German leaders are likely to .
Then check your answer against this model:
- Germany could shift forces from the East to the Western Front.
- Allied strength would grow as American troops, shipping, credit, and supplies accumulated.
- Germany launched major offensives to try to force a decision before the balance shifted irreversibly.
Caution: This strategy could win only if Germany broke Allied resistance quickly. A long offensive would consume irreplaceable trained soldiers and supplies.
Which explanation best captures Germany's strategic logic in spring 1918?
- Germany expected Russia to re-enter the war, so it attacked France first.
- Germany hoped to use troops freed from the East to win before American power fully strengthened the Allies.
- Germany believed the naval blockade had ended and could safely fight a long war.
- Germany planned only defensive operations because it had unlimited supplies.
Show Answer
Answer: B) Germany hoped to use troops freed from the East to win before American power fully strengthened the Allies.
Russia's withdrawal created a short-lived opportunity, while US participation made the long-term balance increasingly unfavorable to Germany. German leaders therefore sought a rapid decision in the West.
6. The German Spring Offensive Fails
A New Offensive Method
Beginning March 21, 1918, Germany used short, intense artillery bombardments and stormtrooper infiltration tactics. Small units penetrated gaps, bypassed fortified points, and aimed to disrupt command posts and supply routes.
Tactical Success
German forces advanced dramatically in several operations. But taking ground was not the same as winning the war. Their rapid movement created long supply lines, while artillery and food struggled to keep pace.
Strategic Failure
Germany could not destroy Allied armies or seize a decisive political objective. It lost valuable veteran troops. Allied unity improved under Foch, and growing American participation made every month of continued fighting worse for Germany.
7. The Hundred Days: Turn Battlefield Success into Collapse
Amiens, August 8
At Amiens, Allied forces used coordinated arms: artillery, tanks, aircraft, infantry, and logistics. Surprise mattered. The attack showed that German defenses could be broken and that German soldiers' willingness to continue was weakening.
How the Allies Kept Moving
The Hundred Days was a sequence of offensives, not a single battle. By striking repeatedly, the Allies denied Germany time to restore a coherent defensive line and forced continuing withdrawals toward the Hindenburg Line.
Why It Mattered
The Allies combined industrial resources with better operational coordination. German losses, retreat, and declining morale convinced senior leaders that the army could no longer secure a favorable military outcome.
8. Why the Central Powers Collapsed
Defeat Was Systemic
Central Power collapse joined battlefield defeat to problems on the home front: hunger, inflation, exhaustion, political protest, and declining trust in leaders. Total war made military endurance depend directly on civilian stability.
Partners Fall Away
Bulgaria signed an armistice on September 29, 1918; the Ottoman Empire on October 30; and Austria-Hungary on November 3. Germany lost allies, fronts opened, and its diplomatic position became untenable.
Revolution in Germany
Naval mutiny and revolutionary unrest spread in Germany in November 1918. Kaiser Wilhelm II abdicated on November 9. The new government sought an armistice because the army, economy, and alliance system were collapsing.
9. Check Your Causal Reasoning
Choose the Best Explanation
This question asks you to connect military operations with the wider pressures of total war. Select the answer that explains why German gains in the Spring Offensive did not produce victory.
Why did the German Spring Offensive fail to secure victory despite major early advances?
- Germany captured so much territory that it voluntarily ended the offensive.
- German forces lost supply support and elite troops, failed to destroy Allied armies, and faced increasingly coordinated Allied and American strength.
- Russia returned to the war immediately and attacked Germany from the east.
- The Allies had no casualties and never retreated.
Show Answer
Answer: B) German forces lost supply support and elite troops, failed to destroy Allied armies, and faced increasingly coordinated Allied and American strength.
The offensive achieved tactical penetration but not strategic decision. Germany could not sustain its advance, replace elite losses, or prevent the Allies from coordinating reserves and drawing on growing US support.
10. Key Terms and Dates
Review the Turning Points
Flip each card, say the answer aloud, then connect it to the larger question: How did the balance of resources, morale, and alliances shift between 1917 and 1918?
- February Revolution, 1917
- The revolution that forced Tsar Nicholas II to abdicate. It brought in a Provisional Government that continued Russia's war effort.
- October Revolution, 1917
- The Bolshevik seizure of power in Russia. The new government sought peace and led Russia out of the war.
- Treaty of Brest-Litovsk
- The March 3, 1918 treaty that ended Russia's war with the Central Powers and imposed severe territorial losses on Soviet Russia.
- US entry into the war
- The United States declared war on Germany on April 6, 1917, adding financial, industrial, naval, and military resources to the Allied side.
- German Spring Offensive
- German attacks from March to July 1918 intended to win in the West before US power became decisive. They gained ground but exhausted Germany's remaining offensive strength.
- Hundred Days Offensive
- A series of Allied offensives from August 8 to November 11, 1918 that drove German forces back and helped force the armistice.
- Armistice of November 11, 1918
- The agreement between Germany and the Allies that ended fighting on the Western Front. It was not the final peace treaty.
Key Terms
- convoy
- A group of merchant ships traveling under naval protection, especially against submarine attack.
- armistice
- An agreement to stop fighting. It ends active hostilities but is not necessarily a final peace treaty.
- attrition
- A strategy or condition in which opponents try to wear each other down through losses of soldiers, equipment, resources, and morale.
- Brest-Litovsk
- The 1918 treaty through which Soviet Russia withdrew from the First World War.
- Western Front
- The main front in France and Belgium between Germany and the Allied armies.
- stormtroopers
- Specialized German assault troops trained to infiltrate enemy defenses, bypass strongpoints, and disrupt rear areas.
- Central Powers
- The wartime coalition led by Germany and Austria-Hungary, joined by the Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria.
- Hundred Days Offensive
- The Allied series of operations from August 8 to November 11, 1918 that broke German resistance on the Western Front.
- unrestricted submarine warfare
- A naval policy of attacking merchant shipping without warning, including ships of neutral countries.