Ethics: How Should We Live? - Introduction to Philosophy: Big Questions and Key Thinkers

1. What Makes a Question Ethical?

Ethics: The Big Question

Ethics (moral philosophy) asks: How should we live? It focuses on what we ought to do, especially in situations that affect others and involve fairness, harm, rights, or respect.

Ethical vs Non-ethical Questions

Non-ethical: "What time does the movie start?" Ethical: "Is it okay to lie to protect a friend?" Ethical questions are about right and wrong, not just facts or personal taste.

Moral Dilemmas

A moral dilemma is a hard choice where each option has something good and something bad. Example: Tell on a friend who stole (protect fairness) or stay silent (protect the friend).

Three Approaches

We will explore three approaches to moral dilemmas: consequences (outcomes), duties and rules, and character and virtues. Each gives a different way to think about "What should I do?"

2. A Simple Everyday Dilemma

The Group Project Dilemma

You are in a group of four. You and one person worked hard. One did a little. Alex did almost nothing. The teacher asks you to rate each person, and the ratings affect grades.

The Choice You Face

If you rate Alex honestly (low), Alex may get a bad grade. If you rate Alex kindly (higher), Alex benefits but it is less fair to you and the others who worked hard.

Why It Is a Moral Dilemma

This situation involves fairness, honesty, and harm. Any choice seems to hurt someone. There is no easy answer, so it is a real moral dilemma we can analyze.

3. Consequentialist Thinking: Focus on Outcomes

What Is Consequentialist Thinking?

Consequentialist thinking focuses on outcomes. It asks: "What action will lead to the best overall results?" An action is right if its consequences are better than the alternatives.

Utilitarianism (Briefly)

A well-known form is utilitarianism: try to create the greatest happiness or well-being for the greatest number. For now, remember: it is about maximizing good results.

Key Questions for Consequences

Ask: Who is helped or harmed? How big are the harms and benefits? What will likely happen next if I choose this? Think about effects on everyone, not only yourself.

Group Project: Consequences

Honest low rating: fair grades, others feel respected, Alex may learn; but Alex may be upset. Kind high rating: Alex is happy now; but grades are unfair and Alex may keep slacking.

Consequentialist Verdict

A consequentialist aims for the option with the best overall balance of good over bad for all involved, even if that means some people (maybe even you) are less happy in the short term.

4. Deontological Thinking: Focus on Duties and Rules

What Is Deontological Thinking?

Deontological thinking focuses on duties, rules, and rights. It asks: "What must I do?" Some actions are wrong even if they lead to good outcomes, because they break important rules.

Kant and Duties

Immanuel Kant argued we should act only in ways we could want everyone to act, and we must treat people as ends, not just as tools. This supports rules like "Do not lie" and "Keep promises."

Key Deontological Questions

What are my duties here? What rules should everyone follow? What rights must be respected? If I make an exception for myself, would that be fair if everyone did the same?

Group Project: Duties and Rights

You might think: I have a duty to be honest on the form. Others have a right to fair grades. If everyone lied to help friends, the rating system would become meaningless.

Deontological Verdict

A deontologist is likely to say: "Rate honestly, because honesty and fairness are duties, even if it upsets Alex." Duties can override the wish for smoother short-term outcomes.

5. Virtue Ethics: Focus on Character

What Is Virtue Ethics?

Virtue ethics, linked to Aristotle, focuses on character. It asks: "What kind of person should I be?" A virtue is a good trait (honesty, courage); a vice is a bad trait (cruelty, cowardice).

Key Virtue Questions

Ask: What would a wise, good person do? Which choice helps me grow into a better person? Am I going to an extreme, or finding a balanced middle between two extremes?

Group Project: Virtues Involved

Relevant virtues: honesty, fairness, kindness, courage. Vices to avoid: cowardice (avoiding conflict), dishonesty, harshness, or spite.

Finding a Balanced Response

You might rate Alex honestly but avoid cruel comments. You could speak to Alex or the teacher respectfully. The aim is to act in a way that builds your character, not just solves this one case.

Virtue Ethics Verdict

Virtue ethics cares about who you become. It suggests choosing the action that shows and strengthens virtues like honesty and compassion, even when it is uncomfortable.

6. Compare the Three Approaches (Your Turn)

Now it is your turn to actively compare the three approaches using the group project dilemma.

Task 1: Match the Reasoning

For each short statement, decide which approach it fits best:

"If I rate honestly, grades will be fair and Alex might learn to work harder. That seems best overall."
"I promised to fill out this form honestly. Lying is wrong, even to help a friend."
"I want to act as an honest and kind person would. I should be truthful but not cruel."

Write down (in your notes or just in your head): C for Consequences, D for Duties, V for Virtues.

Check Yourself (do not scroll until you have guessed):

Answers:

Consequences (C)
Duties (D)
Virtues (V)

Task 2: Create Your Own Sentence

Pick a different small dilemma from your life, for example:

Whether to share homework answers with a friend
Whether to tell a teacher about bullying you saw
Whether to use AI tools on an assignment when rules are unclear

For that dilemma, try to write three short sentences:

One using consequentialist thinking (focus on outcomes)
One using deontological thinking (focus on duties/rules/rights)
One using virtue ethics (focus on character/virtues)

Keep them simple. This practice will help you see that the same situation can be viewed in different ethical ways.

7. Quick Check: Spot the Approach

Try this short quiz to see if you can recognize each approach.

You are thinking about whether to secretly use an AI writing tool on a take-home test, even though the teacher said not to. Which sentence shows **deontological** thinking?

If I use the tool, I will probably get a better grade with less stress, so the outcome is better for me.
Using the tool breaks a clear rule the teacher gave. I have a duty to follow that rule, even if it costs me points.
I want to be the kind of student who is honest and takes responsibility for my own work, so I will not use it.

Show Answer

Answer: B) Using the tool breaks a clear rule the teacher gave. I have a duty to follow that rule, even if it costs me points.

Option 2 is deontological because it focuses on a **duty** to follow a **rule** the teacher set. Option 1 focuses on outcomes (consequentialist). Option 3 focuses on what kind of person you want to be (virtue ethics).

8. Take a Stand: Your Own View

Now practice giving and defending your own view on the group project dilemma.

Step 1: Choose Your Action

Imagine you are actually in this situation right now. Which would you choose?

A. Rate Alex honestly, even if it hurts their grade.

B. Rate Alex more kindly than they deserve, to protect them.

C. Something in-between (for example, rate honestly but also talk to Alex or the teacher).

Pick one option before you move on.

Step 2: Write a Short Justification

In 2–4 sentences (spoken or written), explain:

What you would do (A, B, or C).
Which ethical idea mainly supports your choice:

Consequences
Duties/rules
Virtues/character

One reason someone might disagree with you.

Example structure (fill in your own ideas):

"I would choose , because . This fits best with thinking. Someone might disagree because ."

Step 3: Check for Argument Structure

From your earlier module on arguments, check:

Do you clearly state your conclusion (what you should do)?
Do you give at least one premise (a reason that supports it)?

If yes, you have just made a simple ethical argument.

9. Review Key Terms

Use these flashcards to review the main ideas from this module.

Ethics / Moral Philosophy: The area of philosophy that asks how we should live and what we ought to do; it studies right and wrong, good and bad, and what makes actions or people morally good.
Moral Question: A question about what is right or wrong, or what we ought to do, especially when our actions affect others, fairness, harm, rights, or respect.
Moral Dilemma: A hard choice where each option has something good and something bad; there is no obvious solution that avoids all harm or unfairness.
Consequentialist Thinking: An approach that judges actions mainly by their consequences (outcomes), aiming for the best overall results or the greatest balance of good over harm.
Deontological Thinking: An approach that focuses on duties, rules, and rights; some actions are right or wrong because of the kind of action they are, not just because of their outcomes.
Virtue Ethics: An approach that focuses on character and virtues; it asks what a good, wise person would do and what kind of person you are becoming through your actions.
Virtue: A good character trait, like honesty, courage, fairness, or kindness, that helps a person live and act well.
Vice: A bad character trait, like cruelty, cowardice, or dishonesty, that leads a person away from living well.

Key Terms

Vice: A negative, stable character trait (such as cruelty or dishonesty) that leads to bad choices and a worse life for oneself and others.
Ethics: The part of philosophy that studies how we should live, what we ought to do, and what makes actions or people morally good or bad.
Virtue: A positive, stable character trait (such as honesty or courage) that helps a person make good choices and live well.
Deontology: An ethical view that focuses on duties, rules, and rights; some actions are right or wrong because of the principles they follow or violate, not just their results.
Moral Dilemma: A situation where every available choice seems to involve some moral cost, such as harm or unfairness, making it hard to decide what to do.
Virtue Ethics: An ethical view that focuses on character and virtues, asking what a good or wise person would do and what kind of person we are becoming.
Moral Question: A question about right and wrong, or what we should do, especially when it affects others, fairness, harm, rights, or respect.
Utilitarianism: A type of consequentialism that says we should aim to produce the greatest overall happiness or well-being for the greatest number of people.
Consequentialism: A family of ethical views that judge actions mainly by their consequences (outcomes); right actions are those with the best overall results.