BIO 204: Fundamentals of Scientific Inquiry in the Biological Sciences

Observation

Information gathered using the senses or instruments, often revealing patterns or anomalies that can lead to scientific questions; can be qualitative or quantitative.

Scientific question

A focused, testable question about the natural world that can be answered by collecting and analyzing data.

Hypothesis

A tentative, testable, and falsifiable explanation for an observation, grounded in prior knowledge and reasoning.

Prediction

A specific, measurable if–then statement about what will happen in an experiment if the hypothesis is correct.

Independent variable

The factor that is deliberately changed or manipulated in an experiment to test its effect on the dependent variable.

Dependent variable

The factor that is measured in an experiment and is expected to change in response to the independent variable.

Independent variable

The factor you deliberately change in an experiment (e.g., fertilizer amount, drug dose). It is the presumed cause in a cause-and-effect relationship.

Dependent variable

The outcome you measure that may change in response to the independent variable (e.g., plant height, enzyme activity, survival rate).

Experimental unit

The smallest entity that can independently receive a treatment (e.g., a pot with one plant, a single mouse, a culture flask). It defines your true sample size.

Biological replicate

An independent experimental unit under the same conditions, used to capture natural variation and support generalizable conclusions.

Technical replicate

Repeated measurements on the same sample, used to estimate measurement error but not to increase the number of independent data points.

Pseudoreplication

Treating non-independent measurements (e.g., multiple leaves from one plant) as if they were independent replicates, which inflates sample size and misleads analysis.

Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)

Clothing and gear (e.g., lab coat, gloves, eye protection) worn to reduce exposure to hazards after engineering and administrative controls.

Micropipette First Stop vs Second Stop

First stop: used to aspirate and initially dispense the set volume. Second stop: used at the end of dispensing to blow out any remaining liquid.

Biohazard Waste

Waste contaminated with potentially infectious biological material, such as cultures, contaminated tips, and gloves; must be collected in designated biohazard containers.

Sharps Container

Rigid, puncture-resistant container used for disposing of needles, blades, and contaminated broken glass, preventing injury and exposure.

Tare (on a balance)

To zero the balance with a container in place, so subsequent readings reflect only the mass of the material added.

Biosafety

Practices, procedures, and equipment used to protect people and the environment from exposure to infectious agents and biological materials.

Accuracy

How close a measurement is to the true or accepted value. High accuracy means low systematic error.

Precision

How close repeated measurements are to each other. High precision means low random variation.

Systematic error

Consistent, repeatable error that shifts all measurements in the same direction, affecting accuracy (bias). Often caused by miscalibration or flawed procedure.

Random error

Unpredictable variation between measurements due to chance factors like instrument noise or small technique differences. Mainly affects precision.

Significant figures

Digits in a number that carry meaningful information about its precision. Determined by the measurement instrument and used to avoid overstating certainty.

Units

Standard quantities (e.g., g, mL, °C, mol/L, cells/mL) attached to measurements. Essential for interpreting biological data and ensuring comparability.

Tidy data

A data format where each row is one observation, each column is one variable, and each cell holds a single value. Standard in modern data analysis.

Categorical variable

A variable that represents groups or categories (e.g., treatment type, species, sex), not numeric magnitudes.

Numeric variable

A variable measured on a numeric scale (e.g., height, mass, time, temperature) that can be ordered and used in calculations.

Mean

The arithmetic average of a set of values: sum of all values divided by the number of values. Describes the central tendency.

Standard deviation (SD)

A measure of spread that describes how far values typically are from the mean, in the same units as the data.

Bar graph

A graph that uses bars to display summary statistics (often means) for categorical groups, sometimes with error bars.

Primary research article

A paper that reports original data from experiments, observations, or analyses, typically with full Methods, Results, and figures/tables showing new datasets.

Secondary article

An article (such as a review or meta-analysis) that summarizes, synthesizes, or interprets findings from primary research papers rather than presenting new data.

IMRaD

A common structure for scientific articles: Introduction, Methods, Results, and Discussion, often plus Abstract, References, and supplementary materials.

Figure legend

The text accompanying a figure that explains what is shown, including experimental conditions, sample sizes, statistical tests, and how to interpret symbols and colors.

Biological replicate

An independent experimental unit (such as a separate culture, animal, or individual) measured under the same conditions, capturing natural biological variation.

Limitation

A feature of a study that restricts how strongly or broadly the results can be interpreted, such as small sample size, narrow conditions, or indirect measurements.

IMRaD

A common structure for scientific papers and lab reports: Introduction, Methods, Results, Discussion. It organizes the story from question to interpretation.

Abstract

A brief summary (often 150–250 words) of the entire study, including background, methods, key results with numbers, and main conclusion.

Scientific tone

Writing style that is clear, objective, precise, and cautious about claims; avoids slang and emotional language while remaining readable.

Methods section

Part of a report that describes what was done in enough detail for another scientist to repeat the study, usually in past tense.

Results section

Section that presents what was found, often with tables and figures, focusing on patterns and statistics rather than interpretation.

Discussion section

Section that interprets the results, connects them to existing literature, addresses limitations, and suggests implications or future work.

Narrative arc (in a short biology talk)

A simple story structure for a 5–7 minute talk: hook, research question and prediction, brief methods, 1–3 key results, and a clear take-home message.

Hierarchy (in visual design)

The intentional ordering of visual importance so the viewer's eye is drawn first to the most important elements (e.g., title, main figure) and then to supporting details.

Orient–Describe–Interpret

A three-step pattern for explaining figures out loud: orient the audience to what is shown, describe the main pattern, and interpret what it means biologically.

Signposting language

Phrases that guide the audience through your talk, such as "First", "Now I will show", "The key point here is", and "In conclusion".

Colorblind-friendly palette

A set of colors chosen to remain distinguishable for people with common forms of color vision deficiency, often avoiding red/green contrasts for critical information.

Lab notebook (research context)

A permanent, dated, and attributable record of experimental plans, procedures, data, and interpretations, kept so that another trained scientist can understand and in principle repeat the work.

Electronic lab notebook (ELN)

A digital system for recording experiments with features like time-stamping, version history, file attachments, and sharing. Used increasingly in academic, industry, and government labs.

Raw data

Original measurements or observations (e.g., OD600 readings, images, sequencing files) recorded before processing or analysis. Should be clearly stored and referenced from the notebook.

Team role: data manager

The person primarily responsible for organizing, naming, backing up, and documenting data files so that the whole team can find and understand them.

Constructive feedback

Feedback that is specific, focused on the work (not the person), balanced between strengths and improvements, and provides actionable suggestions.

Peer review (course context)

The process of classmates or colleagues critically evaluating each other's experimental designs, reports, or presentations to improve clarity and scientific rigor.

Research misconduct (FFP)

Fabrication, falsification, or plagiarism in proposing, performing, reviewing, or reporting research, done intentionally, knowingly, or recklessly and representing a serious departure from accepted practices.

Honest error

An unintentional mistake in research design, execution, analysis, or reporting, corrected when discovered and not considered misconduct.

Questionable research practice (QRP)

A poor or biased research practice (e.g., p‑hacking, HARKing, weak record‑keeping) that undermines reliability but may not meet the formal definition of misconduct.

3Rs (animal research)

Replacement, Reduction, and Refinement: guiding principles to replace animals where possible, reduce numbers used, and refine procedures to minimize pain and distress.

Informed consent

Process in human research where participants are given understandable information about the study, risks, benefits, and rights, and voluntarily agree to take part.

Data management plan

A structured description of how data will be collected, organized, stored, backed up, analyzed, shared, and preserved, including privacy and security measures.